From a liberal to a strategic actor: the evolution of the EU’s approach to international energy governance

Most scholars have described the European Union (EU) as a liberal actor in its approach to international climate and energy governance. This paper argues that EU has shifted strategic approach, including use of legislation adoption negotiating positions promote political agenda. is illustrated through an analysis EU’s evolving stance on multilateral governance handling Nord Stream 2 project. The began shift towards already 2000s, context Energy Charter Treaty negotiations growing securitization debates. Following polycrisis mid-2010s, adopted full-fledged external policy. Geopolitical crises great power competition, together with intra-EU divisions increased focus agenda, catalyzed approach.